Given that neural plasticity is at its greatest during infancy and toddlerhood, sleep is likely to have the most impact on the brain and on cognition during this critical period of early development. Yet, around 20–30% of young children experience problems with sleep. Researchers have observed that even though some infants with atypical sleep patterns early on eventually develop typical patterns of sleep by 6 or 7 years of age, reduced sleep duration in the first two years of life may have long-term consequences on later developmental outcomes, such as some degree of impaired physical, emotional and social functioning. A growing body of evidence suggests that children and adolescents displaying sleep difficulties or irregular bedtime is significantly associated with later problems of mental and physical health and lower cognitive and academic performance (Hill, Hogan, & Karmiloff-Smith, 2007; Kelly, Kelly, & Sacker, 2013; Magee, Gordon, & Caputi, 2014; Lam, Hiscock, & Wake, 2003; Wake, et al., 2006).

For infants and toddlers, touchscreen devices offer an attractive source of stimulation, and their portability allows for a wide range of use across multiple settings. However, the widespread use of devices in this age group has raised serious concerns for parents, educators and policy makers, as the potential impact of touchscreen use on toddler development, such as sleep, remains unknown. In addition, research into the long-term impact of poor sleep during early development remains limited. Yet, findings so far coincide, linking shorter sleep duration to negative developmental outcomes. The majority of studies (~90%) show a consistent pattern linking increased screen time with shorter total sleep time and delayed bedtime. As a result, recent guidelines have recommended screens to be kept out of a child’s bedroom specifically because of the potential impact they may have on sleep (OfCom, 2014).

Given the evidence that:

1. media use is linked to poor sleep in older children and adults,
2. touchscreen use in infants/toddlers is highly prevalent, and
3. sleep plays a prominent role in early cognitive and brain development,

it is critical to investigate whether touchscreen use is associated with sleep problems early in development.

A recent meta-analytic review identified 20 studies in children and adolescents aged between 6 and 19, and found strong and consistent evidence for detrimental effects of portable touchscreen devices on sleep quality and quantity (Carter, Rees, Hale, Bhattacharjee, & Paradkar, 2016). All studies used parent questionnaires, and have reported a significant effect of screen time on sleep: increased amount of TV viewing was associated with parent-reported sleep problems, shorter night-time sleep duration, reduced quality of sleep, and irregular naptime and bedtime schedules, adjusting for known confounds including socioeconomic status (SES).

Using a large scale survey, researchers have started to investigate the relationship between touchscreen use and sleep in infants and toddlers between 6 and 36 months of age. Parents were asked to report on the average duration of their child’s daytime and night-time sleep, the time taken for their child to fall asleep, as well as the frequency of night awakenings, to obtain a comprehensive account of infant/toddler sleep patterns.

The UK-based survey on 715 families, reported that 75% of toddlers between 6 months and 3 years of age use a touchscreen on a daily basis. The researchers found that the prevalence of daily use increases substantially with age, from 51% in 6- to 11-month-old infants to 92.05% by 25–36 months. Among users, daily usage increased with age from 8.53 minutes a day (6–11 months) to 45 minutes a day (26–36 months). The average touchscreen usage in this sample is 24.44 minutes.

There was a significant association between touchscreen use and duration of sleep at night, and sleep onset (the type it takes to falls asleep), with increased touchscreen use associated with decreased night-time sleep, increased daytime sleep and a longer sleep onset. There was no significant association between touchscreen usage and frequency of night awakenings. Results also showed that increased touchscreen use was associated with decreased overall amount of sleep. The researchers concluded that every additional hour of touchscreen use is associated with an overall reduction in sleep of 15.6 minutes.

The blue wavelengths emitted by electronic devices—which are beneficial during daylight hours because they boost attention, reaction times, and mood—seem to be the most disruptive at night. While light of any kind can suppress the secretion of melatonin, blue light at night does so more powerfully. Researchers conducted an experiment comparing the effects of 6.5 hours of exposure to blue light to exposure to green light of comparable brightness. The blue light suppressed melatonin for about twice as long as the green light and shifted circadian rhythms by twice as much (3 hours vs. 1.5 hours). (Harvard, 2015).

It is worth noting that touchscreen use may also have positive effect on some aspects of development. In a recent study of the same sample of infants and toddlers, increased active touchscreen use was associated with earlier achievement in fine motor milestones (Bedford, Saez de Urabain, Cheung, Karmiloff-Smith & Smith, 2016).

Together, these findings emphasize the need for a more in-depth understanding of how to maximize benefits and minimize negative consequences of this modern technology.

Bedford, R., Saez de Urabain, I. R., Cheung, C. H., Karmiloff-Smith, A. & Smith, T. J. (2016).
Toddlers’ Fine Motor Milestone Achievement Is Associated with Early Touchscreen Scrolling. Front Psychol 7, 1108, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01108

Carter, B., Rees, P., Hale, L., Bhattacharjee, D. & Paradkar, M. S. (2016). Association Between Portable Screen-Based Media Device Access or Use and Sleep Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.2341

Cheung, C., Bedford, R., Saez De Urabain, I., Karmiloff-Smith, A. and Smith, T. (2017). Daily touchscreen use in infants and toddlers is associated with reduced sleep and delayed sleep onset. Scientific Reports, 7, p.46104. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46104

Harvard (2015). Blue light has a dark side - Harvard Health. [online] Harvard Health. Available at: https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/blue-light-has-a-dark-side [Accessed 3 Oct. 2017].

Hill, C. M., Hogan, A. M. & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2007). To sleep, perchance to enrich learning? Arch Dis Child 92, 637–643, https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2006.096156

Kelly, Y., Kelly, J. & Sacker, A. (2013). Time for bed: associations with cognitive performance in 7-year-old children: a longitudinal population-based study. J Epidemiol Community Health 67, 926–931, https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2012-202024

Magee, C. A., Gordon, R. & Caputi, P. (2014). Distinct developmental trends in sleep duration during early childhood. Pediatrics 133, e1561–1567, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3806

Lam, P., Hiscock, H. & Wake, M. (2003). Outcomes of infant sleep problems: a longitudinal study of sleep, behavior, and maternal well-being. Pediatrics 111, e203–207

OfCom. Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes Report. (2014). Available at https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/76266/childrens_2014_report.pdf

Wake, M. et al. (2006). Prevalence, stability, and outcomes of cry-fuss and sleep problems in the first 2 years of life: prospective community-based study. Pediatrics 117, 836–842, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-0775 

Fabric softeners were designed to free your clothes of both wrinkles and static cling, and give them a fresh fragrance. Therefore when people use fabric softeners and dryer sheets, they are coating their cloths with a thin film of artificial chemical perfumes and plasticizers that will be easily transferred to their skin the next time they put on those cloths, especially when one begins to perspire. Nearly every chemical that touches the skin finds its way into the body and into the bloodstream. The wetter your body becomes, the more easily the chemicals can move from clothing into your skin. And since many of these chemical compounds are by themselves solvents, they are rather good at moving through cellular membranes and entering tissues of the body, including nervous system tissues. In addition, just like other perfumes, a person’s sensitivity to these perfumes decreases over time to the point where they don’t even notice how potent these artificial fragrance chemicals are. Furthermore, when consumers use dryer sheets, those chemicals are heated and then shot into the air for you to breathe into your lungs.

What amalgamation of ingredients have the teams of scientists concocted in laboratories to bring you these indulgences? And how toxic are they?

Though these products are approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), fabric softeners may top the list as one of the worst "indoor pollutants". In a controlled study of washing and drying laundry, researchers sampled emissions from residential dryer vents during the use of no products, fragranced detergent, and fragranced detergent plus fragranced dryer sheet. The researchers found more than 25 volatile organic compounds (VOC) emitted from dryer vents, with the highest concentrations of acetaldehyde, acetone, and ethanol. Seven of these VOCs are classified as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and two as carcinogenic HAPs (acetaldehyde and benzene) with no safe exposure level, according to the US Environmental Protection Agency (Steinemann et al., 2011).

Cationic fabric softeners are considered to be asthmagens. In laboratory testing in which mice breathed the dilute volatile emissions of air fresheners, fabric softeners, colognes, and mattresses for 1 h, we measured various combinations of sensory irritation, pulmonary irritation, airflow limitation (analogous to asthma attacks), and neurotoxicity. The same effects were observed after mice were subjected to inhale air samples taken from sites associated with repeated human complaints of poor air quality (Anderson & Anderson, 1999). Not everyone may suffer an allergic reaction by being exposed to cationic fabric softeners. But it should be noted that long-term effects have not been adequately studied for them to be deemed as safe and effective.

Although all other ingredients in your personal care products must be disclosed on the label by specific name, the so-called “fragrance loophole” in federal labeling law means that ingredients added to provide a pleasant scent, or to mask a bad one, need only be listed under the generic term “fragrance.” The International Fragrance Association, an industry trade group, publishes an online “Transparency List” of nearly 4,000 ingredients that manufacturers say they use in formulas for consumer products under the ingredient "fragrance". Some common culprits include:

• Parabens: Synthetic preservatives known to interfere with hormone production and release.
• Phthalates: Another synthetic preservative that’s carcinogenic and linked to reproductive effects (decreased sperm counts, early breast development, birth defects) and liver and kidney damage.
• Synthetic musks: These are linked to hormone disruption and are thought to persist and accumulate in breast milk, body fat, umbilical cord blood, and the environment.
• Acetone: Inhalation can cause dryness of the mouth and throat; dizziness, nausea, incoordination, slurred speech, drowsiness, and, in severe exposures, and coma. Also acts primarily as a central nervous system (CNS) depressant.
• Benzaldehyde: A local anesthetic and CNS depressant that can cause irritation to the mouth, throat, eyes, skin, lungs, and GI tract causing nausea and abdominal pain. May also cause kidney damage.
  
• Benzyl Acetate: A carcinogenic (linked to pancreatic cancer) compound able to irritate the eyes and respiratory passages.
• Benzyl Alcohol: Able to irritate the upper respiratory tract and cause headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, drop in blood pressure, CNS depression, and death in severe cases due to respiratory failure.
  
• Ethanol: Directly affects the CNS and may cause symptoms such as fatigue, drowsiness, impaired vision, ataxia, stupor, irritation to eyes and upper respiratory tract even in low concentrations.
  

It has been established that many of the fragrance ingredients, especially fragrance mixtures, have been identified as allergens. Thus, a person exposed to a certain fragrance material will elicit an allergic response when exposed to this fragrance from any product whether cosmetic or detergents under similar exposure conditions (Europa.eu, 2002).

Phthalates ("Thal-ates") are mainly used as a plasticizer - which is an additive that increases the plasticity or viscosity of a material. Phthalates are weak endocrine disruptors and androgen blocking chemicals. In other words, these chemicals, when absorbed into the body, can either mimic or block female hormones, or in males, suppress the hormones involved in male sexual development. In lab animals, phthalate exposure has been found to be associated with numerous reproductive health and developmental problems such as:

• Early onset of puberty.
• Interfering with the male reproductive tract development.
• Interfering with the natural functioning of the hormone system.
• Causing reproductive and genital defects.
• Lower testosterone levels in adolescent males.
• Lower sperm count in adult males.

There is no easy way to tell if a product has added phthalates. Phthalates can be identified on labels by a three or four letter acronym that defines their chemical structures. Labels rarely state “contains phthalates”. Phthalates are used in a wide range of common (especially plastic) products, including but not limited to:

• personal-care products (perfume, eye shadow, moisturizer, nail polish, liquid soap, and hair spray),
• food products, food containers and wrappers,
• the coatings of pharmaceuticals,
• detergents and surfactants,
• nutritional supplements,
• adhesives and glues,
• building materials,
• vinyl upholstery,
• shower curtains,
• medical devices,
• children's toys,
• modelling clay,
• packaging,
• waxes,
• paints,
• textiles,
• floor tiles,
• and cleaning materials.

People are exposed to phthalates by touching, eating, and/or drinking products that have been in contact with containers and products containing phthalates. To a lesser extent, exposure can occur from breathing in air that contains phthalate vapors or dust contaminated with phthalate particles.

Due to the ubiquity of plastics (and therefore plasticizers) in modern life, the vast majority of people are exposed to phthalates, and most Americans tested by the have metabolites of multiple phthalates in their urine, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2009).

Researchers have observed that children who experienced prenatal exposure to elevated levels of phthalates had lower IQ scores than children exposed to lower levels. The new research adds to a body of evidence regarding the association between prenatal exposure to phthalates and problems with cognitive function and behavior. During the third trimester of pregnancy, the researchers measured urinary metabolites of four phthalates: di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate, and diethyl phthalate. At age 7, the children of the mothers with the highest concentrations of DnBP and DiBP metabolites had IQs 6.6 and 7.6 points lower, respectively, than children of mothers exposed to the lowest concentrations. Other research has shown that a six- or seven-point decline in IQ can substantially affect academic achievement and occupational potential (Factor-Litvak, 2014).

A separate study examined cognitive function in relation to pre-and postnatal phthalate exposure in children 2–12 years old. After recruiting 430 pregnant women in their third trimester in Taichung, Taiwan from 2001–2002. A total of 110, 79, 76, and 73 children were followed up at ages 2, 5, 8, and 11, respectively. The children’s cognitive function was evaluated at four different time points using different tests for assessing neurocognitive functions and intelligence (IQ). Urine samples were collected from mothers during pregnancy and from children at each follow-up visit. They were analyzed for seven metabolite concentrations of widely used phthalate esters. The researchers found significant inverse associations between the children’s levels of urinary phthalate levels and their IQ scores, after controlling for maternal phthalate levels and potential confounding variables. Phthalate exposure was associated with decreased cognitive development in the young children (Huang et al., 2015).

Ingredients:

• 2 cups of Epsom salts or coarse sea salt
  
• 20 to 30 drops essential oil
• 1/2 cup baking soda
  

Directions:

1. Using a large bowl or pan, mix the essential oils with the Epsom salts first, then stir in the baking soda.
2. Pour the mixture into a container with a tight-fitting lid.
   

Other Tips

• One cup of distilled white vinegar and one-and-half tsp. of your favorite essential oils combined in a spray bottle. Shake well, give your wet clothes 10 to 15 spritzes and toss them into the dryer. (Don't worry — the vinegar smell will completely dissipate.)
  
• A crumpled-up ball of aluminum foil tossed in the dryer with your clothes helps get rid of static cling.
  
• A clean wash cloth with a few drops of essential oil added to the dryer will give your clothes a lovely, completely natural aroma when you pull them out
  

Anderson, R. C., & Anderson, J. H. (1999). Sensory irritation and multiple chemical sensitivity. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 15(3-4), 339-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/074823399678846817

CDC. (2009). Phthalates. [online] Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/pdf/Pthalates_FactSheet.pdf [Accessed 29 Sep. 2017].

Europa.eu. (2002). The Scientific Committee on Cosmetic Products and Non-Food Products Intended for Consumers.. [online] Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sccp/documents/out171_en.pdf [Accessed 30 Sep. 2017].

Factor-Litvak P, Insel B, Calafat AM, Liu X, Perera F, Rauh VA, Whyatt RM. 2014. Persistent associations between maternal prenatal exposure to phthalates on child IQ at age 7 years. PLoS One 9(12):e114003.

Huang, H., Chen, H., Su, P., Huang, P., Sun, C., Wang, C., Chen, H., Hsiung, C. and Wang, S. (2015). Fetal and Childhood Exposure to Phthalate Diesters and Cognitive Function in Children Up to 12 Years of Age: Taiwanese Maternal and Infant Cohort Study. PLOS ONE, 10(6), p.e0131910.

IFRA International Fragrance Association. (2015). Ingredients transparancy list. [online] Available at: http://www.ifraorg.org/en-us/ingredients#.U9qfRoBdVss [Accessed 30 Sep. 2017].

National Institute of Health. (2017). Phthalates: The Everywhere Chemical. [online] Available at: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/supported/assets/docs/j_q/phthalates_the_everywhere_chemical_handout_508.pdf [Accessed 30 Sep. 2017].

Steinemann, A., Gallagher, L., Davis, A. and MacGregor, I. (2011). Chemical emissions from residential dryer vents during use of fragranced laundry products. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 6(1), pp.151-156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-011-0156-1

California, with $2.9 billion in certified organic sales, continued to lead the nation in certified sales, accounting for 38% of the U.S. total. It also had the largest share of certified organic acres and farms.

Ten states accounted for 77% of U.S. certified organic sales, which was virtually the same share compared to 2015 and 2014.

The results from the survey also included:

• Vegetables, $1.6 billion
  
• Fruits, tree nuts, and berries, $1.4 billion
  
• Livestock and poultry, $1.2 billion
  
• Field crops, $763 million
  

The top organic commodities in 2016 were:

• Milk – $1.4 billion, up 18%
  
• Eggs – $816 million, up 11%
  
• Broiler chickens – $750 million, up 78%
  
• Apples – $327 million, up 8%
  
• Lettuce – $277 million, up 6%
  

Other top organic crops were strawberries, grapes, tomatoes, corn, potatoes, hay, spinach, and mushrooms.

The survey is a census of all known U.S. farmers and ranchers with certified organic production in 2016. Producers must meet the standards set out by USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service’s National Organic Program and be certified compliant by an approved agent of the program.

The Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study is a large, epidemiological study that included more than 135,000 individuals between the ages of 35–70 years across 18 countries. Regions included Canada, Sweden, United Arab Emirates, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Iran, Malaysia, occupied Palestinian territory, Poland, South Africa, Turkey, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Zimbabwe.

Overall, the researchers found that high carbohydrate intake (more than 60% of energy) was associated with higher risk of total mortality, whereas total fat and individual types of fat were related to lower total mortality. Total fat and types of fat were not associated with cardiovascular disease, myocardial infarction, or cardiovascular disease mortality, whereas saturated fat had an inverse association with stroke.

For decades, dietary guidelines have focused on reducing total fat and saturated fatty acid intake, based on the presumption that replacing saturated fatty acids with carbohydrate and unsaturated fats will lower LDL cholesterol and should therefore reduce cardiovascular disease events. This focus is largely based on selective emphasis on some observational and clinical data, despite the existence of several randomized trials and observational studies that do not support these conclusions.

After documenting 5796 deaths and 4784 major cardiovascular disease events and running statistical analyses, the researchers observed:

• Individuals who consumed a very high carbohydrate diet (at least 60% of energy), especially from refined sources (such as white rice and white bread), were associated with increased risk of total mortality and cardiovascular events.
• An inverse association between total fat and total mortality.
• Individuals consuming a higher glycemic load, such as refined carbohydrates, were associated with a higher risk of stroke
  
• An inverse association between saturated fatty acid intake, total mortality, non-
  cardiovascular disease mortality, and stroke risk without any evidence of an increase in major cardiovascular disease, myocardial infarction, and cardiovascular disease mortality.
  
• An inverse association between monounsaturated fatty acid intake and total mortality.
  

The results of this study do not suggest a low-carbohydrate diet, but rather that a total fat intake of about 35% of energy while lowering carbohydrate intake might lower risk of total mortality. Collectively, the data does not support the recommendation to limit saturated fatty acids to less than 10% of intake and that a very low intake (ie, below about 7% of energy) might even be harmful.

1. The researchers used food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) to estimate participants’ dietary intake which is not a measure of absolute intake, but is suited for classifying individuals into intake categories and is the most commonly used approach for assessing intake in epidemiological studies.
   
2. Dietary intakes were measured only at baseline, and it is possible that dietary changes might have occurred during the follow-up period. Even if major dietary changes occurred after the baseline assessment, they probably would have weakened the observed associations.
3. There is potential for social desirability bias and individuals who are health conscious might also adopt other healthy lifestyles. However, if this were the case, the researchers would not expect to see different associations for the different outcomes.
4. As with any observational cohort study, observed associations might be in part due to residual confounding (eg, differences in the ability to afford fats and animal proteins, which are more expensive than carbohydrates) despite extensive adjustment for known confounding factors.
   
5. The researchers were unable to measure trans-fat intake which might affect our results, especially our replacement analyses.
   
6. FFQ assessed polyunsaturated fatty acid intake mainly from foods, rather than from vegetable oils, which might have different health effects than those observed in the study.
   

The researchers declare no conflicts of interests

Brown, E. (2017). More Evidence That Everything the Government Teaches Us About Eating Is Wrong. [online] Reason.com. Available at: http://reason.com/blog/2017/08/30/pure-study-challenges-dietary-dogma [Accessed 20 Sep. 2017].

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Many try to bolster their happiness through certain food choices, but this actually does not work, and Lustig provides compelling arguments that the foods you crave drive up dopamine and drive down serotonin. Rather, it’s experiences that make you happy. People can make you happy. You can make yourself happy. In his book, Lustig outlines a number of different strategies to become happier.

“Ultimately, the goal is [to increase] your serotonin,” he says. There are four ways to boost your serotonin, and they’re all free. They’re also things your grandmother likely told you to do. First and foremost is making human connections.

“Turns out that Facebook does not count as connection. When we’re talking about interpersonal connection, we’re talking about eye-to-eye,” Lustig says. “The facial emotions of the person you’re talking with activate a set of neurons in your brain called ‘mirror neurons,’ which are the drivers of empathy and specifically linked to serotonin.To be able to generate a feeling of empathy, which ultimately turns into contentment/happiness, you actually have to connect. You can’t do it over the internet. You can’t have a connection with ‘anonymous.’ It just doesn’t work.”

On the contrary, social media generate dopamine, associated with pleasure, and hence can drive addiction. The main problem is that when dopamine goes up, serotonin goes down. So, online communication is actually a major causative factor of unhappiness.

Lustig also elaborates on how companies — both food manufacturers and electronics companies — capitalize on the biology of dopamine versus serotonin to get us addicted to their products. There’s even a book on this topic written by Nir Eyal, called, “Hooked: How to Build Habit-Forming Products.”

There are three other ways, besides connecting, that boost serotonin and happiness. The remaining three of the four C’s are:

1. Contribute: Meaning the act of contributing to something greater than yourself; making a contribution to society. “You can get happiness and contentment from your job, but there are certain criteria that have to be met,” Lustig says. “Most people, unfortunately, have a boss who is not contributing to their happiness. The workplace is not usually the best place to achieve meaningful contentment.”

2. Cope: Lack of sleep, insufficient exercise and multitasking are all causes of unhappiness. Sleep is extremely important for healthy serotonin production. Here, avoiding exposure to electronic screens is important, as blue light inhibits melatonin production, thereby making sleep more elusive. Electronics will also disrupt your sleep and deteriorate your health by exposing you to unnecessary microwaves, discussed in this recent article on depression.

3. Cook: If you cook, you’re likely going to increase your tryptophan, reduce your refined sugar intake, and increase your omega-3 fats (anti-inflammatory) and fiber. Overall, this will result in improved gut health, which has tremendous impact on your mood and mental health.

“Numerous investigators … have shown that your gastrointestinal flora tell your brain what they want through signals that go through the bloodstream, and potentially even neural ones as well. If you do not feed your bacteria, you cannot get happy. Eating real food you prepare yourself is super important,” Lustig says.

Ideally, you want your plate to look like a mosaic, painted with various colors from different foods. Create a rainbow of colors on your plate, with fruits and vegetables. Eating a variety of different foods offer more nutrients.

In this powerful TED talk, Dr. William Li discusses the powerful synergistic effects of combining food.