Gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye, has been a staple in many diets for centuries. However, recent research and clinical observations in the field of various fields of study have highlighted its potential harmful effects on human health.
Gluten, derived from the Latin word "glue", is a protein made of glutenin and gliadin molecules that form an elastic bond in the presence of water. Adhesive and elastic properties found in gluten are responsible for holding bread and cakes together, helping it rise and giving them a spongier texture. Gliadin is particularly problematic for the digestive system, which in turn negatively affects many other systems of the body.
The harmful effects of gluten extend beyond traditional concerns of celiac disease and wheat allergy. The opioid-like properties of gluten exorphins, the gut-disrupting effects of gliadin, and the additional risks posed by modern agricultural practices make a compelling case for considering gluten's impact on health. Reducing or eliminating gluten from the diet, especially for individuals with chronic health issues, may offer significant benefits for overall well-being and long-term health.
By understanding these complex interactions and addressing the root causes of dysfunction, a holistic approach to managing and mitigating the harmful effects of gluten can be adopted.
Gluten, derived from the Latin word "glue", is a protein made of glutenin and gliadin molecules that form an elastic bond in the presence of water. Adhesive and elastic properties found in gluten are responsible for holding bread and cakes together, helping it rise and giving them a spongier texture. Gliadin is particularly problematic for the digestive system, which in turn negatively affects many other systems of the body.
The harmful effects of gluten extend beyond traditional concerns of celiac disease and wheat allergy. The opioid-like properties of gluten exorphins, the gut-disrupting effects of gliadin, and the additional risks posed by modern agricultural practices make a compelling case for considering gluten's impact on health. Reducing or eliminating gluten from the diet, especially for individuals with chronic health issues, may offer significant benefits for overall well-being and long-term health.
By understanding these complex interactions and addressing the root causes of dysfunction, a holistic approach to managing and mitigating the harmful effects of gluten can be adopted.
Opioid Effects of Gluten Exorphins
When gluten is ingested, it breaks down into various peptides, one of which is known as gluten exorphins. These peptides can cross the blood-brain barrier and bind to opioid receptors in the brain, producing effects similar to those of opioid drugs. This can lead to a range of issues, including:
- Cravings and Addictive Eating Patterns: The opioid-like effects can make it challenging for individuals to reduce or eliminate gluten from their diets, contributing to overeating and food addiction.
- Mood Disorders: By interacting with brain chemistry, gluten exorphins may influence mood and behavior, potentially exacerbating conditions such as depression, anxiety, and irritability.
- Cognitive Impairment: Some studies suggest that these peptides can affect cognitive function, leading to brain fog and reduced mental clarity.
Influence on Health
Gluten interferes with nutrient breakdown and absorption from foods, regardless if they have gluten or not. This results in the formation of a glued-together constipating lump in the gut that can prevent proper digestion. Afterwards, the undigested gluten prompts an auto-immune response that attacks the villi, or the fingerlike projections lining your small intestine. Side effects such as diarrhea or constipation, nausea and abdominal pain may arise. Gluten consumption can also predispose people to increased damage and inflammation to the small intestine, causing nutrient malabsorption, nutrient deficiencies, anemia, osteoporosis and other health problems. A damaged small intestine makes a person also susceptible to diseases that aren't gastrointestinal in nature, such as neurological or psychological such as depression, and complications linked to the skin, liver, joints, nervous system and more (Peters et al., 2014).
pharmacolgic actions of gluten
- Neurotoxic Effects
Gluten has been shown to exert neurotoxic effects, potentially affecting brain function and behavior. Studies indicate that gluten exorphins, opioid peptides derived from gluten digestion, can cross the blood-brain barrier and bind to opioid receptors, leading to cognitive impairments and mood disorders . - Teratogenic Effects
Research suggests that gluten may have teratogenic effects, posing risks during pregnancy. Animal studies have indicated that gluten exposure can negatively impact fetal development, leading to congenital anomalies . - Immunoreactive Effects
Gluten is highly immunoreactive, triggering adverse immune responses in susceptible individuals. This immunoreactivity is particularly evident in conditions such as celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity, where gluten ingestion leads to significant immune-mediated damage to the small intestine . - Inflammatory Effects
The inflammatory potential of gluten is well-documented. Gluten ingestion can provoke a robust inflammatory response, contributing to chronic inflammation and exacerbating autoimmune conditions. This inflammation is often mediated by the activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines . - Immunotoxic Effects
Gluten exhibits immunotoxic properties, which can harm the immune system. In individuals with celiac disease, gluten triggers an autoimmune attack on the small intestine, leading to severe immunotoxic effects that compromise gut integrity and overall immune function . - Diabetogenic Effects
Evidence points to gluten as a diabetogenic agent, capable of promoting diabetes. Studies have linked gluten consumption to an increased risk of type 1 diabetes, suggesting that gluten may contribute to the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells . - Interleukin-15 Downregulation
Gluten's impact on cytokine regulation includes the downregulation of interleukin-15 (IL-15), a critical cytokine for immune function. Dysregulation of IL-15 is associated with inflammatory diseases and immune system dysfunction . - Cardiotoxic Effects
The cardiotoxic potential of gluten has been highlighted in recent research, indicating that gluten consumption may adversely affect heart health. Gluten-induced inflammation and immune responses can contribute to cardiovascular diseases . - Hepatotoxic Effects
Gluten's hepatotoxic effects are particularly concerning, with studies showing that gluten can contribute to liver damage. This damage may be mediated through immune reactions and inflammatory processes that impact liver function . - Endocrine Disruptor: Insulin Resistance
Gluten acts as an endocrine disruptor, potentially leading to insulin resistance. By affecting the endocrine system, gluten can interfere with insulin signaling and glucose metabolism, increasing the risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes . - Serotonin Down-Regulation
Finally, gluten has been implicated in the down-regulation of serotonin, a crucial neurotransmitter for mood regulation. Reduced serotonin levels can lead to depressive symptoms and other mood disorders, linking gluten consumption to mental health issues .
The pharmacologic actions of gluten extend far beyond simple dietary intolerance. The neurotoxic, teratogenic, immunoreactive, inflammatory, immunotoxic, diabetogenic, cardiotoxic, hepatotoxic, and endocrine-disrupting effects of gluten highlight its potential to disrupt multiple bodily systems. Understanding these actions is crucial for individuals seeking to manage their health through dietary choices and for healthcare professionals addressing gluten-related disorders.
Leaky Gut syndrome
Gliadin has been shown to increase the production of zonulin, a protein that regulates the tight junctions in the gut lining. When zonulin levels rise, these tight junctions loosen, allowing undigested food particles, toxins, and pathogens to enter the bloodstream. This condition, known as leaky gut syndrome, can result in:
- Chronic Inflammation: The immune system reacts to these foreign particles, leading to widespread inflammation that can contribute to autoimmune diseases and other chronic conditions.
- Allergies and Sensitivities: A leaky gut can increase the likelihood of developing food allergies and sensitivities as the immune system becomes overly reactive.
Small Intestinal Bacterial and Fungal Overgrowth (SIBO / SIFO)
Disruption of the gut lining by gliadin can also contribute to an imbalance of gut flora, leading to conditions such as SIBO and SIFO. These conditions occur when bacteria or fungi that normally reside in the large intestine overgrow into the small intestine, causing:
- Digestive Distress: Symptoms include bloating, gas, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and constipation.
- Malabsorption: The overgrowth can interfere with nutrient absorption, leading to deficiencies and related health issues.
- Systemic Effects: Toxins produced by these microorganisms can enter the bloodstream, contributing to fatigue, joint pain, and other systemic symptoms.
Agricultural Practices and Additional Concerns
Most wheat available on the market today is genetically modified to be "Roundup Ready," meaning it is resistant to the herbicide glyphosate. Additionally, glyphosate is often used as a desiccating agent before harvest. These practices raise several concerns:
- Glyphosate Residue: The presence of glyphosate residue in wheat products can further disrupt gut health by harming beneficial gut bacteria and contributing to dysbiosis.
- Toxicity: Glyphosate has been linked to various health issues, including endocrine disruption, cancer, and liver and kidney damage.
- Environmental Impact: The widespread use of glyphosate contributes to environmental pollution and the development of resistant weed species.
Where is Gluten Found?
Gluten is predominantly found in whole grains such as wheat, barley, rye, oat, other wheat-related species and hybrids, including but not limited to:
High amounts of gluten are also found in these wheat-based flours and byproducts:
- Spelt
- Kamut
- Farro
- Durum
- Products like bulgar and semolina
High amounts of gluten are also found in these wheat-based flours and byproducts:
Wheat-Based Flours |
Wheat Byproducts |
White flour Whole wheat flour Graham flour Triticale Wheat germ Wheat bran |
Pasta Couscous Bread, bread crumbs and croutons Flour tortillas Cookies, cakes, muffins and pastries Cereal Crackers Beer Gravy, dressings and sauces Conventional oats (these have a high chance of being contaminated during the growing, harvesting or processing stages |
One of the many reasons to avoid processed foods is that they often contain gluten. Here are examples of processed foods that have gluten (even though they're not made from grains):
Processed broth and bouillon cubes |
Natural flavorings |
Imitation fish |
Processed yogurt |
Fried foods |
Dumplings |
Seasoned rice |
Ice cream cones |
Candies |
Emulsifiers |
Matzo |
Salad dressings |
Lunch meats and hot dogs |
Soy sauce |
Modified food starch |
Seasoned chips and other seasoned snacks |
Malts |
Starches |
Hydrolyzed vegetable protein (HVP) |
Texturized vegetable protein (TVP) |
Fasting From Gluten
Gluten, a protein found in many foods, including wheat, barley, rye, and malt, is the most common irritant of the small intestine. Symptoms of irritation from gluten vary in degree from individual to individual, and gluten intolerance may be inherited. For most people, consumption of gluten can cause the immune system to attack the small intestine though inflammation, leading to gas, diarrhea, skin rashes, and may prevent the absorption of vital nutrients and vitamins, leading to depression and exhaustion. A gluten-heavy diet may contribute to osteoporosis, anemia, and vitamin and mineral deficiencies, primarily because the small intestine is too inflamed to perform its duty of absorbing nutrients.
Because gluten is so difficult to digest, it can leak, undigested, into the bloodstream. This phenomenon has become a topic in autism research, because undigested gluten has the ability to attach itself to the opiate receptors of the brain, mimicking the effect of a morphine high. In some, after consuming gluten-containing products like bread, pasta, or beer, this manifests as a mild feeling of relaxation. Researchers have observed that casein, a protein found in milk, can have the same effect on the brain (Teschemacher, Koch & Brantl, 1997; European Food Safety Authority, 2009). A growing body of evidence suggests that anything the body can interpret as an opiate can become addictive, and gluten is a major culprit, behaving like a powerful, mood-altering, brain-damaging drug.
Each individual has a different sensitivity to gluten, but almost everyone suffers some irritation from it. Abstaining from gluten will allow the small intestine to soothe and heal itself, reestablishing its efficient absorption of nutrients. You will feel more energized, alert, and nourished.
Because gluten is so difficult to digest, it can leak, undigested, into the bloodstream. This phenomenon has become a topic in autism research, because undigested gluten has the ability to attach itself to the opiate receptors of the brain, mimicking the effect of a morphine high. In some, after consuming gluten-containing products like bread, pasta, or beer, this manifests as a mild feeling of relaxation. Researchers have observed that casein, a protein found in milk, can have the same effect on the brain (Teschemacher, Koch & Brantl, 1997; European Food Safety Authority, 2009). A growing body of evidence suggests that anything the body can interpret as an opiate can become addictive, and gluten is a major culprit, behaving like a powerful, mood-altering, brain-damaging drug.
Each individual has a different sensitivity to gluten, but almost everyone suffers some irritation from it. Abstaining from gluten will allow the small intestine to soothe and heal itself, reestablishing its efficient absorption of nutrients. You will feel more energized, alert, and nourished.
Discover Arise GF Sourdough Bread
Are you looking for a delicious and healthy alternative to gluten-containing bread? Look no further than Arise GF Sourdough Bread!
Why Choose Arise GF Sourdough Bread?
Why Choose Arise GF Sourdough Bread?
- Gluten-Free Goodness: Made with the finest ingredients, our bread is perfect for those with gluten sensitivities or anyone seeking a healthier lifestyle.
- Delicious Taste: Enjoy the classic sourdough flavor without the gluten! Our bread is crafted to be just as tasty as traditional sourdough.
- Healthy Alternative: Packed with nutrients and made without any artificial preservatives, Arise GF Sourdough is a wholesome choice for your diet.
You can find Arise GF Sourdough Bread in the frozen aisle at Whole Foods. Just grab a loaf, thaw, and enjoy! Your taste buds and your body will thank you! For more information, visit the website: Arise Bakery GF
Support Your Digestion with Gluten Guardian
For those who struggle with digesting gluten and dairy, Gluten Guardian 3.0 offers an effective solution. This advanced digestive enzyme supplement is specially designed to help break down gluten found in wheat, barley, and other grains, as well as assist in digesting casein from dairy products.
Why Choose Gluten Guardian 3.0?
✅ Helps Assist Digestion – Taking three capsules before meals supports your body's ability to process hard-to-digest proteins like gluten and casein, helping to reduce digestive discomfort.
✅ Improves Absorption – With a blend of specialized enzymes, Gluten Guardian aids in breaking down carbohydrates and proteins more efficiently, potentially minimizing gas, bloating, and indigestion while maximizing nutrient absorption.
✅ Supports Muscle Building – Featuring six plant-based proteolytic enzymes, this supplement promotes protein breakdown and utilization, which may benefit muscle recovery and growth.
✅ Clean, Plant-Based Formula – Made in the USA, Gluten Guardian 3.0 is dairy-free, gluten-free, soy-free, and non-GMO. It contains no artificial ingredients or fillers, making it a safe and effective choice for both vegetarians and vegans.
How to Use Gluten Guardian 3.0
Simply take three (3) capsules with a glass of water at the start of each meal. For best results, use consistently or as recommended by your healthcare provider. If you’re looking for digestive support without compromise, Gluten Guardian 3.0 can be a game-changer—allowing you to enjoy meals with greater comfort and confidence.
✅ Helps Assist Digestion – Taking three capsules before meals supports your body's ability to process hard-to-digest proteins like gluten and casein, helping to reduce digestive discomfort.
✅ Improves Absorption – With a blend of specialized enzymes, Gluten Guardian aids in breaking down carbohydrates and proteins more efficiently, potentially minimizing gas, bloating, and indigestion while maximizing nutrient absorption.
✅ Supports Muscle Building – Featuring six plant-based proteolytic enzymes, this supplement promotes protein breakdown and utilization, which may benefit muscle recovery and growth.
✅ Clean, Plant-Based Formula – Made in the USA, Gluten Guardian 3.0 is dairy-free, gluten-free, soy-free, and non-GMO. It contains no artificial ingredients or fillers, making it a safe and effective choice for both vegetarians and vegans.
How to Use Gluten Guardian 3.0
Simply take three (3) capsules with a glass of water at the start of each meal. For best results, use consistently or as recommended by your healthcare provider. If you’re looking for digestive support without compromise, Gluten Guardian 3.0 can be a game-changer—allowing you to enjoy meals with greater comfort and confidence.
References
Hadjivassiliou M, Sanders DS, Grünewald RA, et al. Gluten sensitivity: from gut to brain. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(3):318-330. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70290-X.
Jabri, B., Sollid, L. Mechanisms of Disease: immunopathogenesis of celiac disease. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 3, 516–525 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncpgasthep0582
Sapone A, Bai JC, Ciacci C, Dolinsek J, Green PH, Hadjivassiliou M, Kaukinen K, Rostami K, Sanders DS, Schumann M, Ullrich R, Villalta D, Volta U, Catassi C, Fasano A. Spectrum of gluten-related disorders: consensus on new nomenclature and classification. BMC Med. 2012 Feb 7;10:13. doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-10-13. PMID: 22313950; PMCID: PMC3292448.
Green PH, Cellier C. Celiac disease. N Engl J Med. 2007 Oct 25;357(17):1731-43. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra071600. PMID: 17960014.
Bashiri H, Keshavarz A, Madani H, Hooshmandi A, Bazargan-Hejazi S, Ahmadi A. Celiac disease in type-I diabetes mellitus: coexisting phenomenon. J Res Med Sci. 2011 Mar;16 Suppl 1(Suppl1):S401-6. PMID: 22247725; PMCID: PMC3252773.
Bernardo D, Garrote JA, Fernández-Salazar L, Riestra S, Arranz E. Is gliadin really safe for non-coeliac individuals? Production of interleukin 15 in biopsy culture from non-coeliac individuals challenged with gliadin peptides. Gut. 2007 Jun;56(6):889-90. doi: 10.1136/gut.2006.118265. PMID: 17519496; PMCID: PMC1954879.
Frustaci A, Cuoco L, Chimenti C, Pieroni M, Fioravanti G, Gentiloni N, Maseri A, Gasbarrini G. Celiac disease associated with autoimmune myocarditis. Circulation. 2002 Jun 4;105(22):2611-8. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.0000017880.86166.87. PMID: 12045166.
Volta U, Rodrigo L, Granito A, Petrolini N, Muratori P, Muratori L, Linares A, Veronesi L, Fuentes D, Zauli D, Bianchi FB. Celiac disease in autoimmune cholestatic liver disorders. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002 Oct;97(10):2609-13. doi: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2002.06031.x. PMID: 12385447.
Antvorskov JC, Fundova P, Buschard K, Funda DP. Impact of dietary gluten on regulatory T cells and Th17 cells in BALB/c mice. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e33315. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033315. Epub 2012 Mar 13. PMID: 22428018; PMCID: PMC3302844.
Bethune MT, Borda JT, Ribka E, Liu MX, Phillippi-Falkenstein K, Jandacek RJ, Doxiadis GG, Gray GM, Khosla C, Sestak K. A non-human primate model for gluten sensitivity. PLoS One. 2008 Feb 20;3(2):e1614. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001614. PMID: 18286171; PMCID: PMC2229647.
Fanciulli G, Dettori A, Demontis MP, Tomasi PA, Anania V, Delitala G. Gluten exorphin B5 stimulates prolactin secretion through opioid receptors located outside the blood-brain barrier. Life Sci. 2005 Feb 25;76(15):1713-9. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2004.09.023. Epub 2004 Dec 20. PMID: 15698850.
van der Kolk JH, van Putten LA, Mulder CJ, Grinwis GC, Reijm M, Butler CM, von Blomberg BM. Gluten-dependent antibodies in horses with inflammatory small bowel disease (ISBD). Vet Q. 2012;32(1):3-11. doi: 10.1080/01652176.2012.675636. Epub 2012 Apr 10. PMID: 22489998.
European Food Safety Authority. (2009). Review of the potential health impact of β-casomorphins and related peptides. EFSA Journal, 7(2), p.231r. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2009.231r
Freston, K. (2008). Quantum Wellness. New York: Weinstein Books
Mercola, J. (2017). What Happens to Your Body When You Eat Gluten?. [online] Mercola.com. Available at: https://articles.mercola.com/what-is-gluten.aspx [Accessed 10 Jan. 2018].
Peters, S., Biesiekierski, J., Yelland, G., Muir, J. and Gibson, P. (2014). Randomised clinical trial: gluten may cause depression in subjects with non-coeliac gluten sensitivity - an exploratory clinical study. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 39(10), pp.1104-1112. https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.12730
Teschemacher, H., Koch, G., & Brantl, V. (1997). Milk protein-derived opioid receptor ligands. Biopolymers, 43(2), pp.99-117. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0282(1997)43:2<99::AID-BIP3>3.0.CO;2-V
Pruimboom, Leo, and Karin de Punder. “The Opioid Effects of Gluten Exorphins: Asymptomatic Celiac Disease.” Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, vol. 33, no. 1, 24 Nov. 2015, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-015-0032-y.
Jabri, B., Sollid, L. Mechanisms of Disease: immunopathogenesis of celiac disease. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 3, 516–525 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncpgasthep0582
Sapone A, Bai JC, Ciacci C, Dolinsek J, Green PH, Hadjivassiliou M, Kaukinen K, Rostami K, Sanders DS, Schumann M, Ullrich R, Villalta D, Volta U, Catassi C, Fasano A. Spectrum of gluten-related disorders: consensus on new nomenclature and classification. BMC Med. 2012 Feb 7;10:13. doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-10-13. PMID: 22313950; PMCID: PMC3292448.
Green PH, Cellier C. Celiac disease. N Engl J Med. 2007 Oct 25;357(17):1731-43. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra071600. PMID: 17960014.
Bashiri H, Keshavarz A, Madani H, Hooshmandi A, Bazargan-Hejazi S, Ahmadi A. Celiac disease in type-I diabetes mellitus: coexisting phenomenon. J Res Med Sci. 2011 Mar;16 Suppl 1(Suppl1):S401-6. PMID: 22247725; PMCID: PMC3252773.
Bernardo D, Garrote JA, Fernández-Salazar L, Riestra S, Arranz E. Is gliadin really safe for non-coeliac individuals? Production of interleukin 15 in biopsy culture from non-coeliac individuals challenged with gliadin peptides. Gut. 2007 Jun;56(6):889-90. doi: 10.1136/gut.2006.118265. PMID: 17519496; PMCID: PMC1954879.
Frustaci A, Cuoco L, Chimenti C, Pieroni M, Fioravanti G, Gentiloni N, Maseri A, Gasbarrini G. Celiac disease associated with autoimmune myocarditis. Circulation. 2002 Jun 4;105(22):2611-8. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.0000017880.86166.87. PMID: 12045166.
Volta U, Rodrigo L, Granito A, Petrolini N, Muratori P, Muratori L, Linares A, Veronesi L, Fuentes D, Zauli D, Bianchi FB. Celiac disease in autoimmune cholestatic liver disorders. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002 Oct;97(10):2609-13. doi: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2002.06031.x. PMID: 12385447.
Antvorskov JC, Fundova P, Buschard K, Funda DP. Impact of dietary gluten on regulatory T cells and Th17 cells in BALB/c mice. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e33315. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033315. Epub 2012 Mar 13. PMID: 22428018; PMCID: PMC3302844.
Bethune MT, Borda JT, Ribka E, Liu MX, Phillippi-Falkenstein K, Jandacek RJ, Doxiadis GG, Gray GM, Khosla C, Sestak K. A non-human primate model for gluten sensitivity. PLoS One. 2008 Feb 20;3(2):e1614. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001614. PMID: 18286171; PMCID: PMC2229647.
Fanciulli G, Dettori A, Demontis MP, Tomasi PA, Anania V, Delitala G. Gluten exorphin B5 stimulates prolactin secretion through opioid receptors located outside the blood-brain barrier. Life Sci. 2005 Feb 25;76(15):1713-9. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2004.09.023. Epub 2004 Dec 20. PMID: 15698850.
van der Kolk JH, van Putten LA, Mulder CJ, Grinwis GC, Reijm M, Butler CM, von Blomberg BM. Gluten-dependent antibodies in horses with inflammatory small bowel disease (ISBD). Vet Q. 2012;32(1):3-11. doi: 10.1080/01652176.2012.675636. Epub 2012 Apr 10. PMID: 22489998.
European Food Safety Authority. (2009). Review of the potential health impact of β-casomorphins and related peptides. EFSA Journal, 7(2), p.231r. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2009.231r
Freston, K. (2008). Quantum Wellness. New York: Weinstein Books
Mercola, J. (2017). What Happens to Your Body When You Eat Gluten?. [online] Mercola.com. Available at: https://articles.mercola.com/what-is-gluten.aspx [Accessed 10 Jan. 2018].
Peters, S., Biesiekierski, J., Yelland, G., Muir, J. and Gibson, P. (2014). Randomised clinical trial: gluten may cause depression in subjects with non-coeliac gluten sensitivity - an exploratory clinical study. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 39(10), pp.1104-1112. https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.12730
Teschemacher, H., Koch, G., & Brantl, V. (1997). Milk protein-derived opioid receptor ligands. Biopolymers, 43(2), pp.99-117. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0282(1997)43:2<99::AID-BIP3>3.0.CO;2-V
Pruimboom, Leo, and Karin de Punder. “The Opioid Effects of Gluten Exorphins: Asymptomatic Celiac Disease.” Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, vol. 33, no. 1, 24 Nov. 2015, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-015-0032-y.
